Have the Aspirations of the Un’s Founders as Laid Out

The United Nations was established at the San Francisco Conference on October 24 1945. The world had just witnessed the failure of the League of Nations to fulfill its purpose, the prevention of a Second World War. Consequently the countries that had opposed Germany and Japan looked to succeed where they had previously failed in promoting a â€Å"just and peaceful global community† (Taylor; Curtis, 2008 p. 314). The objectives, principles and structure of the organization they hoped would achieve this were recorded in the United Nations Charter. Upon entering the UN, members were required to consent to the set of conditions laid out in this treaty. At the outset there were 51 members. By 2006 this number had grown to include 192 member states, almost encompassing the entire world. Yet whilst the organization has grown in size, the question remains as to whether those aspirations originally laid out in the Charter have actually been met. I will argue that the United Nations has had some success in its capacity as a humanitarian organization, as well as being a useful tool helping to solve international economic, social and cultural problems. However I believe that the UN remains somewhat impotent with regards to issues of international peace and security. The UN Charter is composed of a preamble, followed by numerous articles grouped by topic into a total of 19 chapters. The preamble offers an overview of the hopeful aspirations upon which the UN was founded. The vision that is described consists of four crucial goals. These are then reiterated in the first chapter in a more formal context. The fist target of the UN is â€Å"To maintain international peace and security† (UN Charter). I will argue that the UN is, and indeed always will be incapable achieving this. The second goal laid out in the Charter is â€Å"To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples† (UN Charter). This effectively promotes the concept of state sovereignty, the idea that every state has the right to govern itself without alien intervention. I will argue that this too is unattainable in accordance with UN principles. My case for the failure of the first aim is based upon the principle behind the second aim, and visa versa. The case that I put forewords is that the ideal of simultaneously maintaining peace while promoting sovereignty is unattainable. The other aspirations of the UN include â€Å"solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character† as well as â€Å"promoting and encouraging respect for human rights† (UN Charter). I will argue that the UN has indeed had some success in achieving these two objectives. In order to assess whether the United Nations aim to promote international peace and security has been successful, it is first important to have some understanding of the UN Security Council and the way it functions. Originally it consisted of 11 states. In 1965 this number rose to 15. Of these states, five maintain a permanent membership whilst the ten others are elected on a biennial basis. For decisions made by the Security Council to be passed, a majority of 9 of the 15 member states must vote in favor of them. Furthermore this majority must include every one of the permanent member states, effectively granting them veto power over all decisions regarding security. The permanent members consist of â€Å"the USA, Britain, France, Russia (previously the Soviet Union), and China† (Taylor; Curtis, 2008 , p. 15), those states considered to be the great powers at the time the UN was formed. In accordance with the Charter, in the incidence of a perceived threat to international peace the Security Council first attempts to find a nonviolent means to settle the issue. This is described in Chapter VI and may involve settlement or mediation. Other non-violent methods may include â€Å"complete or partial interruption of economic relations and of rail, sea, air, postal, telegraphic, radio, and other means of communication, and the severance of diplomatic relations† (UN Charter: article 41). Where violence is unavoidable the UN may sanction a peacekeeping mission with the objective of affecting a ceasefire or separating rival forces. The principles of UN with regards to international peace and security have now been described. It was the hope in 1945 that the Security Council could be used as a tool to â€Å"save succeeding generations from the scourge of war† (UN Charter: Preamble). However I would argue that just like the League of Nations before it, the fundamental principles behind UN’s security policies are flawed, rendering their aspiration for international peace impossible. It is my belief that the aforementioned policies of the Security Council are incompatible with the principle of state sovereignty, which is also endorsed as an aim of the UN in Article 2 (7) of the Charter, stating that â€Å"Nothing contained in the present Charter shall authorize the United Nations to intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state†. F. H. Hinsley presents the idea of these two ideals clashing in his book ‘Sovereignty’ (1966). The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 â€Å"legitimized and standardized† (Watson; 1992) the practice of state sovereignty amongst major European powers, requiring them to recognize and respect the territorial integrity of other states. This is widely considered as being the formal introduction of state sovereignty into international relations. Sovereignty essentially refers to â€Å"the supreme authority in a political community† (basiclaw. net; 2004) and implies that states have the right to govern themselves, recognizing no higher authority. However even before such ideas were given proper recognition, states had always recognized their right â€Å"to go to war for any reason whatever, on any pretext at all, if it judged war to be in its interests or necessary for its security† (Hindsley; 1966:p230). It follows that this right is encompassed within those of a sovereign state, which recognize no higher authority and so are free to do that which is in their best interests. Hinsley points out that â€Å"after the end of the nineteenth century states clung tenaciously to this right, believing it to be fundamental to their sovereignty† (1966 p. 30). Yet at the same time, following the devastation of the Second World War, states were undoubtedly disinclined to enter another global conflict. In an attempt to maintain peace the United Nations was formed. Hinsley wrote that the League of Nations Covenant was ‘riddled with compromises which reflect the clash between their conviction that it had become imperativ e to restrict their right to go to war and their conviction that it remained impolitic or impossible to do so† (1966). I would argue that the same could be said for the United Nations Charter, which simultaneously prohibits war whilst insisting on state sovereignty. At the time when the UN was founded, this clash of interests represented in the Charter may not have been of great consequence. Nations were sick of war and were happy to respect sovereignty if it meant they could avert further conflict. This reflected the â€Å"traditional belief that diplomats should ignore the internal affairs of states in order to preserve international stability† (Taylor; Curtis, 2008 p. 20). However over time shifts in the international environment would change this. During the cold war, member states were tentative when it came to any sort of interference within other sovereign states. This was demonstrated in Jean Kirkpatrick’s (1979) essay written in the defending the preservation of brutal dictatorships in Latin America as a means of fighting communism without having to get directly involved (Forsy the 1988: 259-60). Furthermore â€Å"the process of decolonization had privileged statehood over justice†, the UN having â€Å"elevated the right to statehood above any tests of viability, such as the existence of a nation, adequate economic performance†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Taylor; Curtis, 2008 p. 314). However with the end of the cold war came a shift in the attention of the international community towards â€Å"individual political and civil rights, as well as the right to basic provisions like food, water, health care, and accommodation† (Taylor; Curtis, 2008 p. 314). Charles Beitz exemplified this, being amongst the first to argue against unconditional statehood, claiming that subsequent to independence there must be greater consideration of circumstances of the individual (Beitz 1979). It was argued that these circumstances of the individual were not merely a humanitarian concern, but could potentially be â€Å"a threat to international peace and security. Evidence of a threat to international peace and security could be the appearance of significant numbers of refugees, or the judgment that other states might intervene militarily† (Taylor; Curtis, 2008). This developing association of morality with national interest in the UN agenda is what I believe brings to light the clash between the aspirations of the UN, one being to promoting international peace, the other being the preservation of the â€Å"self-determination of peoples† (UN Charter, article 1). In order to uphold the rights of individuals where they are being neglected, intervention is necessary. Here it seems the UN is caught in a catch 22. On the one hand they can neglect to take interventionist action in order to protect sovereignty. This can be seen in the reluctance of the UN intervene n Darfur which in 2009 had resulted in the death of â€Å"up to 200,000 people and left 2. 7 million homeless† (Tisdall, 2009). Alternatively they have the option of a â€Å"relaxation of the non-intervention principle† (Taylor; Curtis, 2008 p. 323). However this approach is equally problematic in attempting to ensure international peace, creating a â€Å"slippery slope† whereby states will take military action without the approval of the UN (Taylor; Curtis, 2008 p. 314). This is recognized by Hinsley, who points out that â€Å"States easily exploit such loopholes. If they cannot plead self-defense for using force- a difficulty which they rarely encounter – they can use it without declaring war or justify it by claiming that they are acting in a good cause as the Security Council would act if the Security Council were not stalled. † (Hindsley, 1966 p. 233). The 2003 invasion of Iraq can be seen to illustrate this point. Before entering Iraq, America looked to gain UN approval. Whilst there has been great speculation over its motivations for doing so, the justification given to the UN was Iraq’s supposed possession of weapons of mass destruction. The alleged presence of these meant the US could claim they were acting to protect the interests of their people. Later the violation of human rights was also given as a justification. However the UN security council did not come to a decision in the winter of 2003 and â€Å"France and Russia threatened to veto a second Security Council resolution authorizing force† (Taylor; Curtis, 2008 p. 323). Regardless of this response a US-led coalition waged war in Iraq in March 2003. The Iraq War case study demonstrates the impotence of the UN to prevent major powers from pursuing their own agendas, even when these agendas threaten international security. In an interview with the BBC, the United Nations Secretary General, Kofi Annan has said, â€Å"from our point of view and from the Charter point of view [the war] was illegal† (2004). On the other hand a statement from the â€Å"Bush administration’s National Security Strategy of September 2002† (Taylor; Curtis, 2008) claimed that the US â€Å"will be prepared to act apart when our interests and unique responsibilities require† (NSS, 2002: 31). This perfectly illustrates how a state exercising its sovereignty, acting in its own special interests which in this scenario include going to war, is at odds with the principles set out in the UN. I would argue that this failure in not a result of UN administration or procedure. It seems instead that the UN is based upon a flawed principle that attempts to encompass two opposing ideals. A system that acknowledges the fact that states internal affairs are of international consequence and therefore can potentially merit intervention, cannot at the same time achieve its aim to maintain international state sovereignty. We see America is unable to exercise its right as a sovereign state to wage war on Iraq under the terms of the Charter, and so must act outside it. Ultimately I would conclude that the ideals at the heart of the UN have rendered it powerless to prevent international conflict impossible. Likewise the ability to justify interventionist policies through the terms of the charter means that the UN can never fully achieve its aspiration to allow the â€Å"self-determination of peoples†. I have already touched somewhat upon another ambition set out in the UN Charter, the aim to promote & protect human rights. However as yet I have only addressed human rights issues with a view to them potentially being a threat to international peace and security. I shall now go on to look at them in greater detail, explaining why I believe the UN has to some extent been successful, despite the fact that human rights abuse is still rife in the world today. A major problem faced by the UN in their efforts to spread human rights is a lack of trust between states that results in a breakdown of international cooperation. The inclusion of human rights earlier in the essay when focusing on issues regarding security and sovereignty highlights an important point. Since the rise in humanitarian intervention after the end of the cold war, there have been â€Å"doubts about the extent to which ‘humanitarian intervention’ is a separate legal or conceptual category† (Welsh, 2006, p. 81). Between 1991-2000 there were 9 cases of humanitarian interventions in Northern Iraq, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Somalia, Rwanda, Haiti, Albania, Sierra Leone, Kosovo and East Timor (Welsh, 2006). However in all but two cases the UN Security Council or independently acting states did not cite â€Å"humanitarian considerations alone as a basis for intervention† (Welsh 2006, p. 81).

Manage Operational Plan Essay

Assessment activity 1 In your own words, describe the purpose of the operational plan and its relationship to the strategic plan. The purpose of the operational plan is to focus on shorter term objectives usually within 1 up to 3 years. For plans of 2 to 3 years, a more detailed breakdown of shorter timeframes should be included within the body of the document. An operational plan provides detailed information on planning, resource, implementation and funding for projects normally developed from the strategic plan. An operational plan should contain indicators to measure progress and performance. When written an operational plan will be defined by the following questions – Where are we now? – Where do we want to be? – How do we get there? – How do we measure our performance? Operational plans also comprise responsibility, allocation and contingency for variation. Contingency planning is the development of alternative plans to be placed in effect if certain unexpected events occur. There are four main advantages to contingency planning: 1) it helps the organisation get into a better position to cope with unexpected developments; 2) indecision, uncertainty, and delays are reduced when something unusual happens; 3) the organisations responses are likely to be better thought out and more rational; and 4) managers are forced to think in terms of possible outcomes, rather than just the most likely outcome. Operational plans are normally derived from strategic plans; a strategic plan provides formal long term direction for an organisation’s mission, objectives and strategies. These plans define What do we do? Who do we do it for? How do we get there? / How do we succeed? Assessment activity 2 Consultation can be undertaken both formally and informally. Outline some of the tools that can be used for formal consultation and discuss there various merits. Formal tools for consultation include: Information sessions Information sessions provide an instant feedback loop; these information sessions could be called planning sessions or development meetings and provide information to the recipient in several forms ensure all learning mechanisms are catered for. Information sessions also ensure that stakeholders feel involved in decision making processes adding value to the process. This can also be beneficial as it does not provide time for negative thinkers to formulate argument. Invitations for submissions from stakeholders When asking for submissions for stakeholders you are providing a tool for continued commitment and keeping the channel for communications open. Stakeholders will need to provide continued input into the process to ensure holistic development of the plan is achieved. Stakeholder consultation is about initiating and sustaining constructive relationships over time.1 Meetings, workshops, focus groups, one on one interview Meetings workshops and â€Å"one to one† consultation tools aid in providing appropriate and agenda orientated discussion and provide input to existing or identified issues, potential solutions and aid in refining the information provided. These meetings and interviews can be minuted and presented back to the groups as an accurate account and a form of continual improvement ensuring that the items raised are being addressed and not being revisited unnecessarily. A focus group involves inviting a group of participants to share their thoughts, feelings and attitudes. This can be a useful tool for gaining â€Å"buy in†2 to the planning process. This information can then be fed back to the process. Feedback mechanisms By measuring feedback and reporting appropriately it will be possible to capture and report opinion on ideas presented and formulate into input to the planning process. Communication mechanisms such as email, intranet, newsletters and memos surveys These tools are a good way of providing information quickly over large groups in a uniform way. Although hard to measure result, by capturing groups that may otherwise not provide input to the process it is bringing transparency and opportunity to build a robust planning process. Assessment activity 3 In your own words, explain why key performance indicators (KPIs) are an important part of the operational planning process. KPIs can be broken down by acronym; by focusing on the importance of each component of a Key Performance Indicator it will become apparent of the role the KPI plays in the operational plan. Key when it is of fundamental importance in gaining competitive advantage and is a make or break component in the success or failure of the plan. An example only by measuring the shelf space gained by a drinks manufacturer they can measure the growth achieved this can be measured on a short term basis indicating success or failure over the plan period. Another example for a gaol, it may be to reduce the amount of lockdowns or assaults over the plan periods this can then provide information in relation to the implementation of absence policies for staff and intervention programs for inmates to achieve predetermined benchmarks. Relating to Performance when it can be clearly measured, quantified and easily influenced by the organisation or governing body. Indicator if it provides leading information on future performance. It is impossible to establish a KPI without a clear understanding of what is possible – so it must be possible to set upper and lower limits of the KPI in reference to the market and how the competition is performing (or in the  absence of competition, a comparable measurement from a number of similar organisations). Some industries do not have immediately recognisable measures but by study of the environment it is possible to be able identify key areas to be measured and provide input into future development and growth (KPI). Measuring key areas of the operational plan ensure that continual improvement and best practice are maintained and that the plan is achieving expected outcomes. Assessment activity 4 Explain the role of an impact assessment in contingency planning and outline the steps within it. Also known as an impact and risk analysis an impact assessment is the developmental tool to assist in defining the structure and content of the contingency plan. By performing an impact assessment it aids in providing accurate diagnosis relating to the definition of risk as outlined by the operation plan, what may occur. The impact of the risk on the operational plan and its projected outcomes, what is the rating of the risk, how will it manifest itself and how damaging will it be to the plan if it eventuates. Coupled with a series of alternatives, recognitions and formulated responses to the risks the information is fed back into the process and forms the contingency plan. This information can be collated in the form of a matrix; the information can then be measured for weight, possibility of outcome, severity of impact and presented with formulated recommendations for risk minimisation or alternatives. IMPACT MATRIX Header Description Change Impact Summary of impact Description Short description of impact Stakeholder Include stakeholder groups and/or role (if required) Category Category identifies the type of impact People (is there a direct impact on people) Structure & roles (is there an impact on how things are) Culture (is there an overall impact on people/groups as a whole) Process (will there be a change to processes) Skills (will skills need to be developed) Technology (will there be system/technology changes) Level of impact High: Large impact and/or large amount of change Medium: Moderate number impact and/or moderate amount of change Low: No or low impact and/or small amount of change Resistance issues Include any stakeholder resistance issues that may impact awareness, acceptance and /or adoption of the change. Risk of inaction Risk of not implementing some form of change management initiative. Change Actions change actions formulated and used based on all the information for each impact: Ref No. Change Impact Description Stakeholder Category Level of Impact (H/M/L) Resistance Issues Change Actions Risks and issues Mitigation Severity Recommendations: Assessment activity 5 Proposals for resource requirements may outline alternatives to the project under consideration. Why? Outlining alternatives to the project being proposed for consideration can assist in providing justification for presenting the chosen proposal as the desired action to be taken. When providing a list of alternatives, areas such as costing, resource availability, risk, legal implication and obligations and time constraint should be examined. This will bolster the selected proposal and provide transparency to the selection process demonstrating that all options have been taken into consideration and tested for appropriateness. Assessment activity 6 Explain what the acronym SMART stands for, and why it is so important for objectives and targets to be designed with this in mind. SMART is a results driven acronym designed to provide focus to the task and the objective required as a result. S.Should be specific, clear to anyone that has basic knowledge of the project. M.Must be measurable, know that that objective is obtainable and how far away completion is. Be aware of when the task has been completed. A.Agreed upon. Agreement must be reached with all stakeholders about what the objectives should be. The objective should also be achievable. RThe objective should be realistic and relevant and within the abilities of the organisation skills base. TTime based. Is there enough time to compete the task? Are the timeframes realistic i.e. not too long as to effect performance, timelines and completion? An objective that follows SMART is more likely to succeed because it is clear (specific) so you know exactly what needs to be achieved. You can tell when it has been achieved (measurable) because you have a way to measure completion. A SMART objective is likely to happen because it is an event that is achievable. Before setting a SMART objective relevant factors such as resources and time must be taken into account to ensure that it is realistic. Finally the timeline element provides a deadline which helps people focus on the tasks required to achieve the objective. The timeline element stops people postponing task completion and effecting performance. Section 2 Assessment activity 7 In your own words, outline some of the key stages in the recruitment process and briefly explain what should be achieved at each step. Preparation It is vital that the planning and preparation stage of the recruitment process is done effectively for the appointment of a new member of staff to be successful. Human Resources (HR) or a management panel / interview panel will need to think about what their current or future needs are and the best  way to meet them. If the vacancy is a new role HR or the appropriately delegated persons will need to think about the job purpose, responsibilities and experience that they are looking for culminating onto the development of a statement of duties (SOD). If the role is replacing an existing one they will need to consider if any changes need to be made to ensure that the job is fully effective and review all policy documentation appropriately to reflect the identified needs. Advertising Candidates first become aware of a vacancy via advertising or by use of a facilitating recruitment agency. A recruitment advertisement must be written in a clear and concise way so as potential applicants are encouraged to find out more about the organisation and advertised position. Where and when you advertise must be taken into consideration as poorly timed or focusing on the wrong target group with inappropriate media selection will provide poor results in response and will not capture the target market. Planning When planning to recruit it is important to establish a realistic timeframe for each stage prior to beginning the process of recruitment. Having tight deadlines and only leaving a small amount of time for short listing and collation of data can be counterproductive. Careful thought about the whole recruitment process in order to get the best possible outcome is critical. Identification of the method of short listing, scoring and the convening of a selection panel are also important considerations to take into account in the planning stage of recruitment. Selection process A professional recruitment process is crucial, for the validity of the recruitment decision and for the image of the organisation. All applicants should feel that they have been treated fairly throughout the process and be left with the impression that the organisation is a fair, coconscious and ethical employer – somewhere where it would be good to work and develop a career. Appointment Following the interview the panel should make a decision based on all the evidence available as it is applied evenly throughout the recruitment and selection process with reference to the required job description. Assessment activity 8 Outline some of the advantages of using a purchase order. Some advantages of a business purchasing utilising a purchase order management system include; the purchaser having a defined traceable record of transaction that states all relevant information to the sale including things such as purchase and delivery dates, cost of purchase, terms and conditions of payments, authorising persons and collation of information between purchase order and invoice / statement to ensure correct payments without ambiguity of details. Purchase order copies can be used to ensure suppliers dispatch the items that you have ordered upon receipt of goods. A good purchase order management system should have a back order system in place. This enables the purchaser to track and follow up items that have not been received at time of purchase but may be arriving later due to an inability to supply. Used In a larger organisation a purchase order can also provide information for accountancy such as distribution of cost centres and allocation to job numbers for future invoicing. Assessment activity 9 Describe a mechanism for ensuring that operational activities are proceeding according to plan. The balanced score card is a measurement framework which integrates multiple perspectives. The balanced scorecard integrates four sets of measurements, complementing traditional financial measures with those driving future performance. An organisation using this framework is encouraged to develop measures (metrics) that facilitate collection and analysis of information from the following perspectives: The Financial Perspective covers the financial objectives of an organisation and allows managers to track financial success. The Customer Perspective covers the customer objectives such as customer satisfaction, market share goals as well as product and service attributes. The Internal Process Perspective covers internal operational goals and outlines the key processes necessary to deliver the customer objectives. The Learning and Growth Perspective  covers the intangible drivers of future success such as human resource, organisational capital and information capturing including skills, training, organisational culture, leadership, systems and databases Implementation of a balanced scorecard presents an opportunity for an organisation to look at its existing programs, services, and processes. Are the right services being provided to the Customers? (Are we doing the right things?) Are the processes implemented now the most efficient and cost effective. Performance measurements provide a mechanism for the organisation to manage its financial and non-financial performance. Accountability is increased and enhanced, ensuring that projects support the organisational strategy, and that better services and greater satisfaction are provided to the Customer. Performance that is measured and reported will improve. (Are we doing things right?). Specific metrics are developed which can then be analysed to provide answers to these questions. Once appropriate metrics have been identified, data collection and tracking processes are put in place, the organisation can begin to adjust its practices and evaluate its performance over time. A continuous feedback loop is formed, in which the organisation can use measurement information to re-align initiatives as required. Scorecards are effective in aligning an organisation’s business areas and activities with its overall strategy, identifying critical financial and non-financial measures, identifying cause-and effect relationships among measures that may aid in problem diagnosis and encourage accountability across the organisation. When it was first introduced the Balanced Scorecard was presented in a four-box model. The danger with the initial four-box model was that companies can easily create a number of objectives and measures for each perspective without ever linking them. Many organisations produced management dashboards to provide a more comprehensive at a glance view of key performance indicators in these four perspectives. A Strategy Map places the four perspectives in relation to each other to show that the objectives support each other. Strategy maps outline what an organisation wants to accomplish (financial and customer objectives) and how it plans to accomplish it (internal process and learning and growth objectives). This cause-and-effect logic is one of the most important elements of best-practice Balanced Scorecards. It allows companies to create a truly integrated set of strategic objectives on a single page. Assessment activity 10 Name three types of financial report that can be used to track progress and monitor performance. Three types of financial Reports that can be used to measure progress and performance are the balance sheet, income statement, and cash flow statement. The balance sheet details a company’s current financial position based on assets, liabilities, and equity. The balance sheet helps answer questions about a company’s liquidity, solvency, and relative position to that of industry competitors. The income statement details a company’s profitability. Net income is found in the income statement and it is determined as revenues less all costs. The income statement sheds light on the company’s ability to spend money (expenses) in order to generate revenues. The cash flow statement details a company’s operating, investing, and financing activities. Because earnings can be manipulated by clever accountants and management, cash flows more accurately reflect the fin ancial performance of a company. Assessment activity 11 What is a gap analysis? Definition: [Gap analysis is a] technique for determining the steps to be taken in moving from a current state to a desired future state. It begins with (1) listing of characteristic factors (such as attributes, competencies, performance levels) of the present situation (â€Å"what is†), (2) cross-lists factors required to achieve the future objectives (â€Å"what should be†), and then (3) highlights the ‘gaps’ that exist and need to be ‘filled.’ Also called need-gap analysis, needs analysis, and needs assessment.3 A gap analysis is the method of improving a company or organisations performance by analysing the reasons for the gap between current results and long-term objectives. Gap analysis begins by asking yourself two basic questions: Where are you now? Where do you want to be? In answering these questions, you need to be as detailed as possible so it will be easier to come up with realistic plans of action. Study your current situation and determine how you are presently performing. A gap analysis conducted on it own will be fruitless unless coupled without proactive solutions incorporated to meet the needs identified in the analysis to ensure effective outcomes and desired results are achieved. Assessment activity 12 Describe the different types of mentoring. Informal mentoring: This form of mentoring option enables employees to enter into an informal style of mentor/protà ©gà © relationship. An informal mentoring partnership has less structure than a formal mentoring process and can occur at any time in a person’s career. The relationship can be initiated by the mentor or protà ©gà ©. Some examples that informal mentoring relationship can be initiated are: A senior level employee that identifies either promise or potential issues in a younger employee‘s path can take them under his or her wing and providing them with advice and guidance to assist them with their current job or career goals; An employee seeking out a senior level employee they admire and together they work to develop a relationship; or A supervisor or a senior level employee recommends a specific employee to the protà ©gà © to receive mentoring. Formal mentoring: Formal mentoring has a structure. It involves an agreement to mentor and be mentored, a clear framework for mentoring and perhaps a program of support. In a formal mentoring relationship, there is discussion of expectations, goals and the process to be used. The frequency and duration of contact is agreed and ground-rules are established. Individuals may establish their own mentoring arrangements or participate in a mentoring program. Peer mentoring: This form of mentoring is when two people undertake a mentoring partnership and take turns in mentoring each other as peers. Each one facilitates the mentoring process by asking questions, listening and reflecting. As in most types of mentoring, there is a place for offering another perspective, expressing an opinion or providing information. However, the decision-making responsibility always remains with the person who will implement and experience the consequences of their own actions. Because the partners recognise each other as peers, it can be easier to offer and receive input as information rather than advice Group mentoring: One mentor can be teamed with several mentees who meet at the same time. As the mentor poses questions, listens and reflects he or she engages all members of the group into the conversation. Each person has their own experience and insight to share and can draw their own learning from the discussion. This can be invaluable to the other attendees as it can provide perspectives that may not be normally considered in a smaller mentoring scenario. Assessment activity 13 Discuss the role of performance monitoring in negotiating variations to operational plans. Effective performance monitoring enables continual risk management in the operational plan process. 360 degree monitoring of the plan and the identification of areas that require adjustment or reassessment can ensure that goals are achieved and KPI’s are met. This will ensure that risk levels can be reduced to minimal impact and contingencies can be implemented if required. With early identification, issues can be resolved by negotiating with authorised persons or groups to enable variation strategies to be approved and implemented. Assessment activity 14 Outline some of the things that organisational policies on documenting performance should cover. When dealing with documenting performance the organisational policies should  have the policy structure in an easily accessible format for example the organisations intranet. These policies should cover; relevant legislation or business guidelines covering expected performance and behaviours within the workplace, relevant performance management guide lines, processes for discipline grievance and appeal structures and guides, storage and access of employee files, audit and assessment guidelines for Work health and safety Compliance to operating models and routines Achievement of output budgets A – Z of relevant forms

Creative writing in non-fiction Essay

Creative nonfiction (also known as literary or narrative nonfiction) is that branch of writing which employs literary Styles, techniques and artistic vision usually associated with fiction or poetry to create factually accurate narratives on actual persons and events. Creative nonfiction contrasts with other nonfiction, such as technical writing or journalism, which is also rooted in accurate fact, but is not primarily written in service to its craft. It is a hybrid of literature and non-fiction because it comprises of Non-fiction elements and Literary elements which are essay form, story/narration, explanation/exposition, place/scene/setting, standard rhetorical patterns, characterization, focuses on ideas, facts (not only language),author personally engaged, researched facts, literary voice/feel, artistic, instinctual, polished language. The primary goal of the creative nonfiction writer is to communicate information, just like a reporter, but to shape it in a way that reads like fiction. As a genre, creative nonfiction is still relatively young, and is only beginning to be scrutinized with the same critical analysis given to fiction and poetry. Though only recently identified and taught as a distinct and separate literary genre, the roots of creative nonfiction run deeply into literary tradition and history though has been in use as earlier as 1970s but was originally made official in the year 1983 in the United States of America at a meeting convened by the National Endowment for the Arts to deal with the question of what, exactly, to call the genre as a category for the NEA’s creative writing fellowships. The NEA long recognized the art of nonfiction but has been trying to find a way to describe the category so writers would understand what kind of work to submit for consideration. â€Å"Essay† is the term used to describe this â€Å"artful† nonfiction, but it didn’t really capture the essence of the genre for the NEA or lots of other folks experimenting in the field. Technically, scholars, critics, and academics of all sorts, as well as newspaper op-ed reporters, were writing â€Å"essays,† although that was not the kind of work the It had in mind. â€Å"Journalism† didn’t fit the category, either, although the anchoring element of the best creative nonfiction requires an aspect of reportage. For a while the It experimented with â€Å"belles-lettres,† a misunderstood term that favors style over substance and did not capture the personal essence and foundation of the literature they were seeking. Eventually one of the NEA members in the meeting that day pointed out that a rebel in his English department was campaigning for the term â€Å"creative nonfiction. † That rebel was Professor Lee Gutkind. Forms within this genre are personal essays, memoir, travel writing, food writing, biography, literary journalism, and other hybridized essays. Personal essay is often a free-wheeling device of self-expression. If you ever want to experiment with prose and with loosened structure, this is where you can do it. A memoir is a piece of autobiographical writing, usually shorter in nature than a comprehensive autobiography. The memoir, especially as it is being used in publishing today, often tries to capture certain highlights or meaningful moments in one’s past, often including a contemplation of the meaning of that event at the time of the writing of the memoir. The memoir may be more emotional and concerned with capturing particular scenes, or a series of events, rather than documenting every fact of a person’s life (Zuwiyya, N. 2000). Literary journalism refers to the use of fictional techniques in writing a work of nonfiction. In other words, it’s a true, well-researched, journalistically-sound story that might normally be written in a dry newspaper manner that has been instead written with style, vivid description, and narrative flow that immerses the reader in the story. The quality of the writing used to tell the story is just as important as telling the truth of the story. Narrative history is the practice of writing history in a story-based form. It can be divided into two subgenres: the traditional narrative and the modern narrative. Traditional narrative focuses on the chronological order of history; it is event driven and tends to center upon individuals, action, and intention. Modern narrative typically focuses on structures and general trends. A modern narrative would break from rigid chronology if the historian felt it explained the concept better. Docufiction (often understood as docudrama) is a neologism which refers to a cinematographic work in a genre mixing fiction and documentary. Docudrama is wrongly used as a synonym of docufiction, confusing drama with fiction. The use of docufiction is common in television, consisting in illustrating facts or events with actors. The term docudrama is apter in this sense. The term docufiction is sometimes used to refer to literary journalism (creative nonfiction). Controversies over the legitimacy of creative nonfiction, both as a term and as a genre; flares up regularly, perhaps even annually. In recent years, several well-publicized incidents within the United States have called into question the truthfulness and factual standards of creative nonfiction. Given its different styles and characteristics, it is not held to the same journalistic ethics and standards as direct reporting or news publications. Its allowances of artistic license to authors are not standardized, and some have accused writers of glorification of interpretation, and even of fabrication. A recent example of these incidents is the James Frey controversy in regards to his memoir A Million Little Pieces, published in 2003. In his memoir, Frey claimed to certain experiences (claim to have helped a high school friend sneak out with her boyfriend on the night she died in a car wreck. But, according to thesmokinggun. com, police reports and the girl’s family indicate Frey had nothing to do with the tragedy. ), which purported to be a memoir but contained fictionalized events, is unmasked in 2006. Such scandals seem to inspire frenzies among literary and cultural critics, an excuse for predictable (but nevertheless often satisfying) expressions of Schadenfreude and sanctimonious pronouncements about Truth in Art. Writers are warned to not be too cre ¬ative with weaving their stories, however. If you add characters, dialogue, invent scenes and alter facts, you moved to the realm of historical fic ¬tion, a noble genre but still, fiction. Lee Gutkind, an English professor at the University of Pittsburgh, credited as the founder of the creative non-fiction movement. â€Å"There’s this research aspect of creative non-fiction (Ethics of Literary Non-fiction) that you can’t get away from — that a lot of writers try to skip over or do without. † Authors seem to be getting the emotional aspects of a nonfiction topic across successfully. Many authors try to carry the emotion with anthropomor ¬phism or an abundance of exclamation points, rather than building the story in such a way that the natural drama of it comes through. Sometimes, the descriptive language is not as strong as it could be. Nonfiction authors are more likely to use a simple, somewhat familiar description rather than searching for a more evocative, unique way of saying the same thing. Works Cited Gutkind, Lee (2007). The Best Creative Nonfiction, Vol. 1. New York: W. W. Norton, xi. ISBN 0393330036. Johnson, E. L. ; Wolfe, Tom (1975). The New Journalism. London: Pan Books. ISBN 0330243152 Wyatt, Edward. â€Å"Best-Selling Memoir Draws Scrutiny†, The New York Times, 2006-01-10. Anderson, Chris (1989). Literary nonfiction: theory, criticism, pedagogy. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, xix-x. ISBN 0809314053. Nancy E. Zuwiyya, School Library Journal, Fox’s work, Colombia, Heinemann Library (Chicago, IL), 2000

Damelin Port Elizabeth Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Damelin Port Elizabeth - Essay Example Insurance product offering are based on life, home and vehicles needs of a demographic, the home loan includes specially tailored products for certain category segments based on ownership patterns ranging from home owners to tenants and other liability protection as needed in that industry. Wachovia's auto loans segment has introduced ConceirgeClaim 2 service that guarantees auto repairs with 24 x 7 customer support. Health insurance include the standard long term health insurance for all micro segments, and introduces a more specialized Wachovia Health Advantage and Health Saving account 3 that work as retirement saving account and are tax advantaged for those looking for deeper involvement in their health insurance plan. Wachovia sets high standards for customer satisfaction as it designs fiscal category products designed on segments based upon demographic, psychological and behavioural profiles and its multiple needs. Wachovia's investment brokerage accounts provide for self-direc ted accounts and for those who need a constant financial advisor through their investments. The retirement planning products based on 20 - 70+ year demographics have specific programmes relevant to a certain age groups with updating schemes as certain class of consumers evolves through the age groups. Wachovia's planning guides 4 help establish future product offerings to current and potential customers by providing educational resources prompting smart fiscal decision making. The customers make informed purchases based on Wachovia's planning guide and this fosters trust and higher customer satisfaction since Wachovia's products are designed based on those needs. A cyclical loop of recurring business with target markets is established. Wachovia provides wealth management services and acting as an executor for the clients that have achieved a certain financial success and need more customized plans and deeper involvement from Wachovia. Services include financial and estate planning, investment and asset management as well as insurance and trust and philanthropic services. These functions are specialized and customized, hence, those that avail of these services get one of its kind deal based on their needs. The effective utilization of the "Next Logical Product" approach for achieving customer satisfaction and establishing relationship by Wachovia is reflected in its financial products. B) Wachovia segments its household market based on demographics, psychographics and behavioural classification. For personal finance, Wachovia offers a band of products based on psychographic needs ranging from those in campus to retirees in banking, insurance, investments, lending and retirement needs. In insurance Wachovia provides for life with standard across demographics and specialized tax saving health plans, home and auto needs segregate products based on ownership patterns (owners, tenants etc), financial rate preferences (fixed rate, 100% financing) and special needs based on the lifestyle of a target market. In banking, besides providing a free checking account, Wachovia also provides a free student checking account, Access Fifty Checking and Crown Classic Banking for those

History of black education in the british north american colonies Research Paper

History of black education in the british north american colonies - Research Paper Example Thus with the formation of the colonies in the North America, diversified people came under the same government and its respective policies. Given the state of the colonies soon after its formation and the entire political scenario of the North America, it was very important to construct a uniting force and direct the future of the citizens into a better direction ensuring equality, human rights, and better quality of living. Moreover, Todorov (1999) states that it was necessary to make an effort to erase the memories of the darker days and instill hope in the citizens. Education was the available means to fight the approaching problems and destroy the seeds of discrimination. Since the North American colony had a good number of black populations against a considerable number of white people so, it was very important to bring them at par with them and not let them feel being discriminated. Hence, this paper â€Å"Black Education in British North America† came into being which will refer to several data and information to study the formation of the British North American colonies, the prevalent education system, the history of educating the ‘black population’. It would focus on the structural differences that the black children face in their education, the measures taken to diminish the differences, the extent of its success and the factors which brought about the change. Formation of the British North American Colonies The colonization of North America by the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland was a culminated result of a lengthy series of attempts and colonization drives by claimants more than one. According to Taylor (2001) the colonization drive in North America began in the year 1607 in the place called Jamestown, in Virginia and gradually colonies were established throughout the entire stretch of America. In America, British were considered as one of the most important colonizers since they established colonies over the largest area and posed a rivalry situation with the Spanish American Colonies in respect to economic and military power. As a result colonization of the America spread over a larger area, with a formidable reach, the British colony in North America gave room for the existence of three types of colonies, namely, charter colonies, proprietary colonies and the royal colonies. The diversity in the types of people, social, economical, and background provided the reasons for chaos and conflict among them on minor or major scale. The colonization drive by the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland, before the Acts of Union in 1707, led to the formation of the British North America colonies that was comprised of the states of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Pennsylvania and New York. The formation of the thirteen colonies, with brought together people from not only different states but al so people with varied backgrounds – social, economica

Professional Development Plan Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Professional Development Plan - Research Paper Example In the academic setting, every good and realistic professional development plan must enable the person making it to meet the core goals of education. This involves the creation of important pointers and requirements that will be linked to the direct development of students (Porter, 2004). In other words, the professional development plan should aim at helping students to become responsible adults who can effectively apply the skills and topics that were taught to them by a good professional tutor. This paper is meant to design a Professional Development Plan for an educator who seeks to promote the personal and professional growth of a culturally diverse and academically diverse classroom. The paper will provide a step-by-step approach to the attainment of goals in important elements of the classroom environment. The areas of interest in this plan include: This project is designed to encourage personal growth and professional growth in an imaginary classroom. In this classroom, the main elements that are important and relevant to the design of the project goals and objectives are the academic diversity and the cultural diversity. Academic diversity is examined from two angles. First of all, the students studied from varied academic institutions and are now in a class where they are to be taught and developed according to a standardized set of principles. Secondly, the students are from a culturally diverse background. This means that they have different ethnic, linguistic, cultural and religious affiliations. As such, there is a tendency for majority and minority issues that need to be resolved to ensure that teaching and study goes on in a very positive and effective manner. Due to the variations and differences in the backgrounds of the students that the plan is being devised for, there is the need for the goals to relate to

Bob Dylan's folk music Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Bob Dylan's folk music - Essay Example This "Bob Dylan's folk music" essay outlines life of talented musician Bob Dylan and his development as an artist. His influence in music cannot be overestimated, he was outstanding in various fields and he significantly developed and expanded the musical scene in the sixties and later years with his innovative daring and liberal ideas. He shattered the notion that for one to be a vocalist, they must have what was traditionally considered a good or refined voice, up to today there are many who have criticized him for his rough voice. Nevertheless, this has not gotten in the way of his success and in any case it has made people listen past the voice to the words which are the real deal, there can be no doubt as to the fact that he radically redefined the vocalist role in popular music. He also ignited several music genres such as electrified folk rock and he is popularly believed to have been the force behind the Beatles introspective songwriting (Varga). Dylan is viewed by many as th e bona fide poet of the rock and roll era and a preeminent songwriter in modern day; he transcends various music genres exploring rock and blues, pop and folk. He has consistently managed to reach out to his fans through profound and sophisticated lyrics with a poetic flare that gives credence to his title of a poet which he, however, does not acknowledge. When Dylan ventured into folk, he was responding to the fact that he believed rock and roll despite its adrenal and pulse rushing effect was not particularly mature or meaningful.; therefore he decided to look for a genre in which his infinite poetic and lyrical depth could be accommodated. His entry in folk and country music radically changed the genre by making it more liberal and democratic; essentially he can be described as having toned down rock and roll giving it maturity and through his topical song writing, psyched up folk music. Consequently it was no longer the music of the middle aged and old timers who were often middle class sophisticates trying to search for authenticity amid the conformity that characterized the American suburban scene in the 50’s. According to Andy Gill (The independent) Dylan rescued folk music from a bunch or bearded guys in cable knit sweaters dreaming about becoming sailors and soldiers and opened it to the young and energetic generation t hat had previously disassociated from the genre preferring rock and roll. One of his most daring and radical changes was the introduction of the electric guitar to folk music, on July 1965, in front of a crowd of 10,000 fans at the Newport folk festival, he surprised them by plugging in a Stratocaster and went electric and this marked the start of a new era(Al Kooper, Gary and Seiji). In the same year he broke through to the pop music audience with his hit single â€Å"like a rolling stone†, which not only catapulted him to the second position on the

WalMart Strategic Audit Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

WalMart Strategic Audit - Essay Example b. Top Management III. EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT: a In order to analyze the strategic situation first of all SWOT analysis have been under taken, which I have presented as under: SWOT Analysis of the Wal-Mart Company STRENGTHS Strong Brand name. Extended customer in more than 200 countries. Use of SAP R/3 Enterprise Resource planning software Low threat of new entrants. Continuous training programs for employees. High budgets of advertising and promotion. Good relations with media. Web based presence. WEAKNESSES Subsidiaries create legal and territorial problems. Lack of funds for regional suppliers to continue expansion Old image still exists. Inconsistent marketing message. OPPORTUNITIES Expansion in shape of introduction of new and innovative products. Expanding market due to globalization. THREATS Current economic climate. Results to be achieved in future can be less than projected "The Threats-Opportunities-Weaknesses-Strengths (TOWS) Matrix is an important matching tool that helps managers develop four types of strategies: So Strategies, WO strategies, ST Strategies, and WT Strategies. SO strategies use a firm's internal strengths to take advantage of external opportunities. WO Strategies aim at improving internal weaknesses by taking advantage of external opportunities. ST Strategies use a firm's strengths to avoid or reduce the impact of external threats. WT Strategies are defensive tactics directed at reducing internal weaknesses and avoiding environmental threats." (David, 180-181) SWOT Matrix: External Opportunities (O) 1. Double-digit growth rate in retail market in Central and North Europe. 2. Consumption of 70 cans per capita annually. External Threats (T) 1. Moderate threat of substitutes. 2. Competitors have gained...(P.454) The process of strategic management has proven to be the force of providing financial benefits for the organizations. In The Balanced Scorecard, Kaplan and Norton provided managers a framework to measure organizational performance from four perspectives: financial, customer, internal business processes, and learning and growth. While organizations worked to implement their own strategy for using balanced measures, Kaplan and Norton discovered a consistent pattern for achieving strategic focus and alignment." (Kaplan & Norton) "The Threats-Opportunities-Weaknesses-Strengths (TOWS) Matrix is an important matching tool that helps managers develop four types of strategies: So Strategies, WO strategies, ST Strategies, and WT Strategies. 6. Wal-Mart is one of the many organizations that use SAP R/3 Enterprise Resource planning software. This software allows all members of the Wal-Mart organization to access the information at anytime where ever they are in the world." (The geographic view of Wal-Mart can be label as global) * "The Strategic Position and Action Evaluation (SPACE) Matrix is another important stage 2 matching tool with four-quadrant framework indicates whether aggressive, conservative, defensive, or competitive strategies are most appropriate for a given organization.

Are court and tribunals in the English legal system now Essay

Are court and tribunals in the English legal system now indistinguishable in all important respects - Essay Example The content of the law here include things like criminal offences and civil wrongs. Here the distinction between a crime and civil wrong cannot be stated as depending upon what is done because what is done may be the same in each case. The true distinction lies therefore not in the nature of the wrongful act but in the legal consequences that follow it. The instances above thus are addressed, heard and determined at very different places which bring us to the court system of the English legal system. This court system is divided or subdivided into either the criminal court system which includes the Supreme Court, the court of appeal, crown court, magistrates, high court and Privy Council. The other division is the civil court system which also includes the Supreme Court, the court of appeal, the county court, the magistrates, the high court and the tribunals (Baker, 2009, p. 29). This brings us to our main subject of the courts and tribunals. From the oxford learners dictionary the m eaning of a court is basically a person or body having judicial authority to hear and resolve disputes in civil, criminal, ecclesiastical or military cases. On the other hand a tribunal is a sitting or a group of proceedings how end goal is to establish and deliver a judgment on a specific issue such as a tribunal to resolve an election dispute which in itself is under the guidance and rules of the court system. The Court and the Tribunal In origin, these tribunals are designed as alternatives to what is believed to be the artificial formality of courts of law, and the supposed ignorance of the ordinary judiciary of specialized information regarding particular economic and social relationships. The ordinary man or woman is expected to be able to operate the process without benefit of counsel or solicitors (Blackstone, 2003). It soon begins to appear, however, that the total absence of formality can be a straightforward passport to injustice. Moreover, in rent cases, and cases of unf air dismissal, the landlord or employer could hardly be expected to spend long days in court instead of managing his own business, and therefore might reasonably be expected to employ a professional advocate. The first characteristic led to a widespread extension of the role of the ordinary courts in their supervisory role of subordinate tribunals, the second to an equally widespread demand for the extension (Bailey, et al. 2007, p. 68). The second to an equally widespread demand for the extension of legal aid to tribunals originally instituted with the intention of keeping the lawyers out. One thing, however, has emerged from the development of the tribunal system since the war, and this is the marked preference shown by Parliament and the public for a tribunal consisting of a lawyer in the chair sitting with two seasoned and experienced lay members over trial by judge alone, or trial before a judge and civil jury (Elliott & Quinn, 2011, p. 38). First and foremost, in a court the p urpose of the case is usually to get the culprit of the offence i.e. the wrongdoer and the appropriate punishment to be administered like in instances where a robbery has occurred and the person responsible has been arrested by the persons concerned which in this case might be the police or even the public. This is somehow different from a tribunal whose real and intended purpose is to

Intellectual Property of Islamic civilization in Andalusia Essay

Intellectual Property of Islamic civilization in Andalusia - Essay Example Cordoba attracted Intellectual giants like Ibn Rushd (Averroes), Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar), Al-Khwarizmi (Algorizm) and Al-Razi (Razes) to name a few, were all Muslims educated in Al-Andalus. In the 700 years that they have been in Europe, the Muslims of Al-Andalus produced a great civilisation that was far ahead and more advance than the rest of Europe at that time. Many tribes, religions and races coexisted in al-Andalus, each contributing to the intellectual prosperity of Andalusia. Literacy in Islamic Iberia was far more widespread than any other country of the West. Today also, unlike other muslim inhabitants of elsewhere , the southern Spain which was known as Muslim Spain is far ahead and distinct in education and thinking. The properity and peace of Andalusi is marked by intellectual advancement specially in field of education and translation works.In the 10th century, the city of Cordoba had 700 mosques, 60,000 palaces, and 70 libraries, the largest of which had up to 600,000 books. In comparison, the largest library in Christian Europe at the time had no more than 400 manuscripts, while the University of Paris library still had only 2,000 books later in the 14th century. In addition, as many as 60,000 treatises, poems, polemics and compilations were published each year in Al-Andalus. In comparison, modern Spain published 46,330 books per year as of 1996. The historian Said Al-Andalusi wrote that Caliph Abd-ar-Rahman III had collected libraries of books and granted patronage to scholars of medicine and "ancient sciences". Later, al-Mustansir (Al-Hakam II) went yet further, building a university and libraries in Cà ³rdoba. Cà ³rdoba became one of the worlds leading centres of medicine and philosophi cal debate. â€Å"The subjects covered by the texts included medicine, astrology, astronomy pharmacology, psychology, physiology, zoology, biology, botany, mineralogy, optics, chemistry, physics, mathematics, algebra, geometry, trigonometry,

Epicurean Hedonism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Epicurean Hedonism - Essay Example It is this emphasis on unadulterated pleasure that has created a ruckus, but which is unfounded as will be shown. According to Epicurus, "Pleasure is our first and kindred good. It is the starting -point of every choice and of every aversion, and to it we come back, inasmuch as we make feeling the rule by which to judge of every good thing" (Qtd. from Cook). 1 He believes that the essential truth of this statement is so obvious, that it renders debate and reasoning unnecessary. It is his belief that we are born with an intimate knowledge of the fact that pleasure is good and pain evil; it is the skepticism which is an inevitable accompaniment of the ageing process that makes the truth so elusive for adults. However the pursuit of pleasure must be governed by temperance. A glutting of the senses with sensual delights can cause pain in the long run; therefore careful judgment must be exercised in order to derive the maximum pleasure that life has to offer. The fulfillment of desire is closely linked to gaining pleasure and Epicurus has a word of caution on the subject. There is pleasure in the satisfaction of desire, but more often than not this is short-lived as more desires take the place of the one that has been fulfilled and soon endless desire takes the form of an insatiable monster, which is hardly conducive to pleasure. Thus an effort must be made to curb desire; this is done by settling for the bare necessities and resisting the temptation to over-indulge oneself. Epicurus distinguishes between desires where "some are natural, others are groundless; and that of the natural some are necessary as well as natural, and some natural only" (Qtd. from Cook).2 Epicurus sets much store by wisdom, as it is ignorance which is responsible for a lack of understanding between good and evil that is the cause of so much misery and turmoil. Wisdom is the wellspring from which the virtues of prudence, courage and justice spring forth. The inherent values of these virtues are largely irrelelevant as the only purpose they serve is towards achieving happiness. Cicero puts this most succinctly, "we aim at these virtues in order to live without anxiety and fear and so far as possible to be free from pain of mind and body"(Qtd.from Cook).3 Epicurean philosophy is immensely valuable to the present day insofar as his arguments go towards overcoming the unreasonable yet prevalent fear of death. With death there is a cessation of sensation, therefore since it involves neither pain nor pleasure, it never has and never will pose a threat to the living. An understanding of this premise goes a long way in removing anxiety which throws an unpleasant pall over the future. Death according to Epicurus "is nothing to us, seeing that, when we are, death is not come, and, when death is come, we are not" (Qtd. from Cook). 4 Distinguishing Epicurean Hedonism from Cyrenaicism Much of the notoriousness surrounding Epicurean hedonism and the stigma of moral licentiousness, attached to it, when it fact it is rather a model of asceticism, stems from its doctrines often being confused with Cyrenaicism. Aristippus was the founder

Rogerian Argument Essay Example for Free

Rogerian Argument Essay The poem â€Å"Sex Without Love† by Sharon Olds is as controversial as the topic itself. The author describing the phenomenon that has become pervasive in modern life could not refrain from taking a stand on the issue, and this position can be either supported or refuted by the audience. When so many people are motivated by the contemporary American culture to engage in sexual intercourse without the trappings of love or even simple emotional attachment, it is interesting to review the poem dedicated to this situation and sort out issues covered in it. Doing so will help one tread with more confidence in the complex realm of human communication. Besides, it is even more interesting since Olds is the kind of poet who does not shun provocative topics and is not afraid to show her intimate life to the public. In analyzing the poem, we will try to understand whether Olds’ poem is a humanistic glorification of the body or a disgusting description that satisfies bad tastes. The latter view of Olds’ poetry is taken by William Logan. In his article â€Å"No Mercy† published in the journal New Criterion in December 1999, he indeed takes no mercy on Sharon Olds’ works and their artistic value. Perhaps the only positive trait Logan finds about Olds’ poetry is its spontaneity and unexpectedness of the next line that in itself should be applauded in the world of literature. However, Logan is disgusted by the sensual images that constantly surface in the poems and repel him with their openness. Therefore, he states that reading through Olds’ â€Å"hell-for-leather hubris you never know whats coming next, but youre sure its going to be a disaster† (Logan 1999:60). In short, Logan believes her work to be â€Å"shameless prose chopped up into lines of poetry, lurid as a tabloid† (Logan 1999:60). As such, he sees Olds’ work as a response to the society in our times constantly demanding from poets more descriptions of sexual lurid scenes, empty of any meaningful human emotions, and Olds is a vivid example of this trend. However, Logan takes care to dismantle the value of the poetess’ work on the grounds on which she seems to him to advance – the radicalism in the portrayal of sexual scenes. Olds to Logan ism despite her attempts to pass herself as a radical, â€Å"a homely Redbook moralist, believing in motherhood, family, and honey on her nipples† (Logan 1999:60). Thus, this view of Olds’ poetry proclaims her tasteless and lacking radicalism, totally denigrating her work and making it look worthless. There is, however, a different perception of Olds’ poetry, and in particular the poem â€Å"Sex Without Love†. To me, in particular, this poem presents an image that is rich in imagery, metaphors, and perceptive comparisons. This imagery comes out in comparisons that liken the participants of the act in turn to dancers, ice-skaters, and children at birth. The latter, true, is a somewhat brutal simile, but it is so to only some people who think that newborns are not particularly good-looking, while to others a newborn is as beautiful as anybody, being part of the life cycle. The first two comparisons, â€Å"beautiful as dancers† and â€Å"gliding over each other like ice-skaters† seem suitable for any taste, reinforcing the opinion that sexual intercourse, like any natural human action, is not disgusting, but beautiful and elegant (Olds). The poem also introduces an interesting perception of sexual intercourse, interpreting it in its own terms. It is unusual to someone who was brought up with the conviction that sex is pure and acceptable only when it is justified by love and preferably by marriage. In our society, love at one point came to serve as a convenient way to justify why people had sex outside of marriage. Therefore, with time it became almost as sacred as marriage itself. Olds takes love off its pedestal and proclaims that those who choose to have sex without it are â€Å"the true religious, the purists, the pros† (Olds). Those are the people who will not accept a false Messiah, love the priest instead of the God. They do not mistake the lover for their own pleasure (Olds). It seems that in this context sex for its own sake becomes the new norm, and love is something like a deviation from this norm. Many people can dispute this perception, but it is certain that each person can have one’s own viewpoint on these matters. In any case, the fact that Olds raises the issue and supports it with bright poetic images makes this poem worth attention. The value of Sharon Olds’ poem is also appreciated in the Free-written Comprehension of Sex Without Love available from the Richard Stockton College of NJ website. Also noting the strong imagery of the poem, the writer also adds that â€Å"the images are here not for enjoyment, but rather to exhibit the reality of the action† (Richard Stockton College). Besides, the interpretation also emphasizes the fact that, like in many pieces of poetry, Olds does not draw the ready-made conclusion that she wants the reader to follow. In fact, she allows several explanations and has the reader make the guessing on his or her own. So is Sharon Olds a lurid author who enjoys portraying sexual scenes with all the possible details or a philosopher who introduces a new opinion, supported with adequate imagery? It feels that the answer can lie somewhere in between. Returning to the denigrating opinion stated by William Logan in his article, one can see that this argument covers the whole poetry. â€Å"Sex Without Love†, compared to other poems by Olds, is relatively more Puritan in its imagery and does not use many shocking details. The emphasis is on the process as a whole, and the author uses broad metaphorical images like ice-skaters or runners to convey broader similarities. Abstaining from talking about details like her labia or other body parts that she mentions in other poems, Olds appears more appealing to a broad audience of people with different backgrounds and views, many of whom may be alienated by more naturalistic images. By the way, talking about the imagery in Olds’ poetry, Logan admits that â€Å"Aristotle would have loved her metaphors, her anatomy lessons† (Logan 1999:60). In â€Å"Sex Without Love†, Olds is at her best with building her imagery that serves to convey her message. Her images become a powerful tool for showing the event from new and new angles, creating the effect of unexpectedness noted by Logan. Most interestingly, there is a viewpoint supported by Free-written Comprehension of Sex Without Love and differing from my initial perceptions: that in the poem, Olds does not at all support the idea of meaningless, thoughtless sex without emotions, and that in fact she is disgusted by it as much as her more conservative audience. The latter view is grounded in the final part of the poem where Olds compares her lovers to runners: they are like great runners: they know they are alone with the road surface, the cold, the wind, the fit of their shoes, their over-all cardio- vascular healthjust factors, like the partner in the bed, and not the truth, which is the single body alone in the universe against its own best time. (Olds) It can be claimed that â€Å"stating that the people in bed together are just meager factors of life strongly indicates that there is distaste for sex without love† (Richard Stockton College). Speaking of cardio-vascular health as one of the factors, Olds expresses her sadness over such act of love that does not include any emotional attachment between the two. Even though on the surface, she claims that she admires sex without love, in fact she is repelled by it, as shown in her images. After deliberation, I agree that Olds’ poem should perhaps be read in a different sense – disputing the value and attraction of sex without emotion. Using this time less naturalistic images, Olds displays her strengths with metaphors by creating an unforgettable picture of the two runners rushing along a meaningless path of factors. In this poem, she may not be savoring the details of lurid sexual pictures. Instead, Olds puts in her poem a deep spiritual meaning that reiterates the old human value of love, attachment, and care. In this sense, she may indeed by lacking radicalism, but instead of this she professes values close to many in her audience. Works Cited Logan, William. â€Å"No Mercy.† New Criterion 18.4 (December 1999): 60. Olds, Sharon. Sex Without Love. 24 June 2002. 17 April 2006 http://plagiarist.com/poetry/4922. Richard Stockton College of New Jersey. Free-written Comprehension of Sex Without Love. 17 April 2006 http:///thebalance/stories/storyReader$9.

Functionalist Concepts Of The Nuclear Family

Functionalist Concepts Of The Nuclear Family Murdock (1949) studied 250 different societies and concluded that the family is so functional to society, that it is unavoidable and universal since neither the individual nor society could survive without it. He argued that every nuclear family has these four essential functions without which society could not continue sexual, reproductive, and economic and education. All these four functions are essential according to Murdock without sexual and reproductive no member of society would be there, life would stop if there was no economic function that is family providing for its members and without education, socialisation would not be there hence absence of culture. Murdock has been criticised for not considering whether the functions of the family could be performed by other social institutions and he does not examine alternatives to the family. Parsons (1955) studied the modern American family in the 50s. He argued that there are two basic and irreducible functions of the family, these are, the primary socialisation of children which Parsons sees as a responsibility of the family to shape the childs personality to suite to the needs of society. The second function is the stabilisation of adult personalities, the family gives adults the emotional support necessary to cope with the stresses of everyday life. (Taylor and Richardson etl 2002). Parsons as with Murdock has been criticised for showing the picture of the family as attuned children and compassionate spouses caring for each others needs. There is a natural division of labour within the nuclear family, roles are segregated positively and everyone carry out different roles, for example the instrumental male, whose role is to provide for the family thus the bread winner and expressive female whose role is to provide warmth, love and care for children at home. Based on Biology the woman is the child bearer therefore has to look after the child, this role maintains social stability. Family patterns have changed with time such as cohabitation, rise of reconstituted families and increase in single or lone parent in western family life and changes in the law on divorce have made it easier to obtain. Functionalist theory has been criticised to have concentrated on the family being positive and gives little attention to its weaknesses while in feminism the nuclear family is oppressive to women due to gender distinctions in domestic duties. Functionalists argue that the family is of equal profit to everyone, however Marxists argue that society developed by the need of the capitalist economy. It is the bourgeoisie who benefits not the whole society. Functionalists focus too much on the significance that the family has for society and disregard the sense family life has for individual. Radical psychiatric argue against functionalism for ignoring the negative aspect of the family like domestic violence. Functionalists also ignore different types of families by focussing mainly on nuclear family. Interactionist David Clark (1991) identified four types of marriage arguing against functionalist, not all families are the same. Functionalist depicts everything as positive in the family while radical psychiatric looks at the negative side of the family. Feminism is a conflict theory that sees the family as patriarchal. Men gain more in a family than women. They view the family on a macro scale. Feminists shows how men dominate social relationships thus symmetrical conjugal roles is seen as an allegory. Feminist argues that Men oppress women through domestic violence, the economic involvement to society made by womens domestic labour within the family. Liberal feminist Wollstonecraft (1792) wanted equality for women in terms of rights, liberties and vote by the change of law and policy. Radical feminists like Millett (1970) argue that the organisation of society enables men to dominate women. They believed that gender distinctions are politically and socially constructed therefore wanted radical reforms and social change. Kate Millet invented the term The personal is political meaning everything in society is political. Radical Feminists think not just patriarchal men that benefit from family but all men. Sociolist feminists look at gender as the basis. Sociolist Marxists combine gender with class. They argue that there is a dual oppression for women that they have to go to work as well as work at home. Marxists feminist believe that the destruction of the capitalist society brings equality to everything. Lesbian feminists believe society forces them into heterosexuality so that men can oppress them. They challenge heterosexuality as a means of male supremacy. Humanist feminists argue that society only allows men to self-develop not women and that society distorts womens human potential. Marxist feminist Bentson (1972) argues that family responsibilities make male workers less likely to withdraw from labour, with wife and children to support. Ansley (1972) sees the emotional support in family, stabilises male workers thus making them less likely to take their frustration out on the system. Feeley (1972) sees the family as a dictatorial unit dominated by the husband and also the family values teach obedience. Children learn to accept hierarchy and their position in it. Greer (2000) is a radical feminist who believes that family life continues to disadvantage and oppress women. She points out Britain has very high divorce rate thus less stability in families. Marxist feminist like functionalist they tend to ignore the diversity of modern family life assuming everyone lives in heterosexual nuclear family. They paint a very negative picture of family life possibly exaggerated. Unlike functionalists who see male and female roles being different but equal, Marxist feminists believe that men dominate family relationships. Feminist theory discards functionalist view that society as a whole is benefited by socialisation in the family but rather men benefits more. Women are portrayed as passive victims of exploitation, it does not take into account women who abuse men by fighting back. Functionalist believes that norms and values benefits society while for feminist they benefit men more for example obedience, women being obedient to men. Feminists focus on nuclear family only and the negative aspect of it. Increase in awareness of womens rights has influenced the norms of society. Marxists views of family sees socialisation process results in the spread of a ruling class philosophy, whereby individuals are deceived into accepting the capitalist system and the supremacy of the capitalist class thus hegemony.Bourgoisie benefits by creating a labour force and proletariat continue to be exploited. Engel s (1972) argued that bourgeois nuclear family as an institution which oppressed women. They were seen mainly as children bearers, economically dependent to their husbands and remain faithful to them. According to Engels the family is designed to control women and protect property thus men needed to know their children in order to pass on their property. Marxists say the family serves capitalism in four ways. The family acts as a safety valves for the stress and frustration of working class men, the family as a unit of consumption buys the goods and services provided by capitalism. Women domestic work is unpaid which benefits capitalism and lastly the family socialises children thereby reproducing both labour power and acceptance of capitalism false consciousness. Zaretsky (1976) analysed that the family is one place where male workers can feel they have power and control. This helps them accept their oppression in wider society, furthermore Zaretsky sees the family as a main prop to the capitalist economy. Marxists view of divorce in families is seen by increased economic pressure from unemployment this may place added strain and also family members living longer could increase pressure on relationships. Marxists decline the functionalist view that society based on value consensus and thus benefits all. Instead they see the welfare of powerful groups influencing the way society is controlled. Marxist view ignores family diversity it sees the nuclear family as being simply determined by the economy. This theory reproduces conflict between classes bourgeoisie and proletariat while in factionalists family operates as united everything benefits society. Capitalist system is dominated both economically by rich at the expense of the poor but seen as a fair system by functionalists that works together in the interest of all members causing limited conflict in society. Anthropologists have suggested that the emergence of the nuclear family did not actually coincide with emergence of capitalism. Somerville (2000) argues that Zaretsky exaggerates the importance of the family as a protection from life in capitalist society. As with functionalism reproduce social stability, Marxism produces labo ur force and feminism produce patriarchy. Interactionism also known as interpretive humans are seen as symbolic creatures meaning we define what is around us through signs and language. They study families on a micro scale instead of generalising the whole population, they also look at what family live is actually like rather than how it should be or how it is assumed to be.Interactionists view families as different and unique thus there is no one way of family life, like other perspectives would suggest. The way a family behaves and interacts is based on interpretation of meanings and roles. We are products of our culture what we take as common sense or reality varies according to the culture we live in. Goffman (1969) compares life to drama, we are actors who take on roles and act them out as public performances. Each role has its own script which tells us how to act and what cues to expect from other members involved in our interaction. Bauman (1990) argues that roles and relationships learnt in the family are essential to shaping our future. Not all families are close and warm family metaphors are often used to represent closeness, for example using the term brother and sister amongst members of political organisations. Kellner (1964) looked at socially constructed roles in a marriage, argues that the reality of marriage is an ongoing construction which needs to be reaffirmed, negotiated and renegotiated. Clark (1991) conducted a study of how couples constructed a meaningful marriage. He identified four types of marriage. Drifting marriages where meanings and ideas of the future are unclear, surfacing marriages often made up of people who have been married before, establishing marriages newly wed couple for long term future and lastly struggling marriages financial problems often from unemployment causes tension and anxiety. The conjugal roles in interactionism show that the roles of husband and wife are constantly evolving. For example both husband and wife working and sharing domestic tasks. Interactionist view families on a micro scale so can discover how individuals make family life based on interactions with each other. They are not interested in generalisations about family life but seek to understand how families are unique. They go further than the common sense view of families that functionalism believes in and look at the meanings of what family life is actually like. Unlike functionalism, Marxism and feminism where there is a set function of the family, interactionism is different for there is no one set function of the family. Families can differ based on their interactions, meanings, roles and culture. The discovery of four different types of marriage offers an opposing argument to functionalism, not an ideal nuclear family. It has been criticised while concentrating on meanings, motives and action it ignores the wider structures in which families operate and are shaped. Sometimes generalisations of families are useful as they allow the development of political social policy. Interpretive approaches try to comprehend the family from the perspective of its members. This research should give you an insight on how the families have changed with time. From different views and approaches, understanding families from traditional way of views to modern familys ways of view.

Managing Globalization at Sony

Managing Globalization at Sony Executive Summary As a consequence of economic liberalization, free trade is rapidly becoming a reality within regional blocks, such as the EU, NAFTA, ASEAN, and Mercosur. Furthermore, the World Trade Organization is continuously reducing the remaining barriers to the free flow of capital, goods, services, and technology among countries and regional blocks. The barriers to trade and investment among countries continue to decline rapidly and are making globalization increasingly more feasible and less expensive. Secondly, technological advances continue their onward march. There has been a sharp decline in the costs of air transportation, telecommunication, and computers since 1950. The decline in transportation costs has radically shrunk the cost of shipping goods across countries. These developments in information technology have dramatically reduced the operative distance between companies, their customers, and their suppliers and made coordination of far-flung operations not only more feasible but also more reliable and efficient. Owing to the development of the global economy, most of the firms are now expanding their operations across nations. Companies are not only located in their home countries, but the production centers, warehouses, distribution centers are also built up in different countries as well. This has been done increasingly to reap the benefits of cost and advantageous resources. This research mainly focuses on certain important strategies adopted by multinational enterprises. These strategic areas of discussion are strategy for globalization, achieving global coordination and operations, building global RD networks and improving corporate governance. The main focus will be on strategies adopted for the mentioned key issues by two multinationals: SONY and SAMSUNG. A qualitative research of these two companies is undertaken and a comparison of the strategies adopted for various key issues has been made in this paper. 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Research Background and Motives In its simplest form, strategy is about getting from A to B as cost-effectively as possible. Implicit in this process are: assessing a firm’s existing situation (A), both external and internal; clarifying strategic objectives (B) and the opportunities they encompass; and determining the pathway of long-term activities (strategies) that most effectively lead from A to B. The strategic pathway must reflect not only the changing environment, but also changes called for in a firm’s capabilities. As such, strategy necessarily combines both internal and external aspects of a firm. When the environment is complex and at times volatile, as is true for the global economy, these two aspects are continuously in play and shaping each other. Firms vary considerably in the motivations and paths that guide them toward their global agendas. They begin at different points in their development, pursue different visions, and operate under different industry conditions. Firms also have a broad choice of the strategic path they take to achieve their global agendas. Some firms in the medical, biotech, and computer software fields may be viewed as â€Å"born global,† because their products have immediate widespread acceptance in an identifiable market niche around the world. But even then, like most firms, they must traverse one or more of three broadly different paths to globalize their operations-through growth, extension, or transformation. Thus, it is the foreign entry strategy that decides the mode of expanding business across nations. The research paper will focus on these strategies as adopted by Sony along with the strategy adopted for global coordination, global RD networks and corporate governance. These strategies of Sony will be compared with those of Samsung to present a contrasting image between the two companies. 1.2 Research Methods The purpose of qualitative research methods is to discover and explain the actual business phenomenon of operations, and CASE STUDY is one of the most popular methods of conducting such a research. This research is mainly focused on two multinational enterprises-SONY and SAMSUNG and the strategies adopted by these firms to enter foreign markets, strategies for attaining coordination in global operations and corporate governance strategies. In order to understand the strategies adopted by these two enterprises is studies. These sources include publications, annual reports and public release of case study companies and a case study provided on globalization of Sony Corporation. Afterwards, the data and information among these corporations will be compared and analyzed. Finally, the results of the case study will be tested and verified with the literature and certain recommendations for further strategies to be followed will be provided.Certain important concepts will be considered whi le making the analysis. These concepts are Multinational Enterprise, Globalization, Corporate Governance and Competitive advantage. The purpose of this research is to explore various strategies adopted while going global and for managing global operations efficiently. The research will aim at discussing and comparing two multinational companies Sony and Samsung on issues relevant to global operations of any organization. The research will also analyze the impact of current economic crisis on the global strategies adopted by companies. While analyzing such impact special consideration will be given to the views of Rhodes and Stetler provided in an article Seize the Advantage in a Downturn, Harvard Business Review (2009) 2 MANAGING A GLOBAL CORPORATION: SONY Sony is uniquely characterized with its relatively outgoing nature, flambount leadership and global mindset of its top executives. The company was founded on May 7, 1946, in Japan under the name of Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo. In 1958, the company changed its name officially to Sony Corporation. Its major products include Audio, Video, Televisions, Information and Communication, Semiconductors and Electronic Components. Sony was the first Japanese company to set up manufacturing facilities in the U.S. In 1980s Sony decided to diversify beyond consumer electronic goods and began to move production to other countries. Various strategies adopted by Sony while globalizing its operations are discussed in following topics. 2.1 Going Global In 1980s Japan had an image of a producer of poor quality goods. When Sony decided to go global the very first decision taken by Morita, (then chairman of Sony Corporation) was to change the companys name from a Japanese name to Sony, which was a combination of a Latin word sonus meaning sound, and a British word sonny meaning, little man. Sony initiated in its global operations in a properly planned way and used Transnational-market strategy to go global. Instead of just starting off the operations in all major countries, the company emphasized on setting up operations in one particular region at a time. For globalizing its operations, Sony followed a approach to understand the market and learn to sell before making any heavy investments. The very first effort towards globalization was setting up of a sales subsidiary in U.S. This was done in 1960 and a decision to set up a manufacturing unit was taken up only in 1971 when the company became well aware of the market trends and consumers choice in U.S. Also Morita decided to stay in America so as to understand the mentality and consumer behavior of the market. Such a bold decision helped Sony to better place its products in U.S. markets. Next market which Sony decided to tap was Europe. In order to be successful in European markets, Sony decided to customize its products as per the consumers choice. Sony had to design a Television set that would accept any of the four prevailing standards of Europe. Although, there was strong resistance for Sonys designs in European markets, company totally refused to leave its philosophy of being different and not an imitator. In London also company followed the policy of starting with only sales office and that too on a small scale. This helped the company to deeply analyze and understand the market the consumer choice before going for great investments in the country. In Germany Sonys strategy was to concentrate on projecting an image of quality. It started selling its product sonly through some best electronic shops and this created a strong awareness about the products of the company. However, to sustain in German markets, Sony continued to persist with its expensive, high quality image even after gaining a considerable awareness and flow of orders. Another challenge which Sony faced while globalizing was expanding operations in several Scandinavian countries. Here Sony first appointed local competing manufacturers, as its agents to enter the market. These manufacturers were those enjoying a good reputation in market and had strong sales capabilities. A worldwide economic recession of 1981-82 acted as a dampener on Sonys sales. At this time a new strategy of setting up Strategic Business Units (SBU) was undertaken so as to manage operations on global basis. 2.2 Building a Global RD Network Sony had developed several breakthrough products since its inception in 1946. The company had always followed the strategy of identifying customer needs and developing products to satisfy those needs and also which can stand the ever-changing market trends. Sony has several RD labs established in different parts of the world. These labs participate in annual meetings every year so as to set priorities and promote collaboration among different regions. The company looked at RD facilities as a means to tap foreign technology, provide technological support to foreign plants and to modify products to suit the needs of overseas markets. The global RD network is controlled centrally by CTO at the Japanese headquarters of the company and the system represents a Matrix system. The RD offices of US and Europe have CTOs who coordinates their own regional RD activities and formulate regional technology strategies. However, overseas labs are given sufficient autonomy to plan and implement their projects and local labs are managed by local subsidiary and also by the CTO. Sony aims at non-duplication of research activities across the system and for this company organizes Annual Technology Exchange Convention where executives from all over the world are able to exchange information and appreciate companys research capabilities. 2.3 Global Coordination Sony used decentralization and delegation in managing its global operations. The need for a good communication between Japanese headquarters and local businesses was also realized. To foster this Sony emphasized on relating its marketing groups with engineering, manufacturing and other headquarter functions. Also, product divisions were allotted the responsibility of participating in design, promotion and advertising along with distribution and various operational issues. Sony does have separate business units with independent management committees but all these are linked with headquarters to ensure coordination and cooperation in various functions. Along with a fair deal of decentralization of functions Sony established a Strategic Group Headquarters to oversee group operations and allocate resources efficiently. Also, there is an integration of design, production, customer service and logistics functions of factories to streamline supply chain management. Through greater use of i nformation technology Sony aims at coordinating administrative, sales and marketing operations of Japan, U.S and Europe. The strategy is to provide a wide range of authority to business units, but with the retention of the cohesive power of headquarters. The goal of this strategy is to create an environment of strong leadership of top management and increased corporate worth. 2.4 Corporate Governance While designing a corporate governance system at Sony, it was aimed that the ability of Board to oversee operations be strengthened. Proper care was taken for delegation of greater authority and responsibility for the extension of business activities and company planned to adopt the Company with Committees system. Such a system comprised of three committees each of which consists of a majority of outside directors. The appointment of outside directors ensures greater soundness, transparency and speed in corporate governance matters. The strategy here is was recognize the importance of a management system that believes in importance of shareholders of the company. The base of such a system of corporate governance is considered to be the innovation of Board of Directors of the company. 3 COMPARISON OF SONYS STRATEGIES WITH THAT OF SAMSUNG. Samsung was founded by Lee Byung-Chull as a small trading company in 1938. Today Samsung Group is a multinational conglomerate headquartered in Samsung Town, Seoul, South Korea. The globalization efforts started in Samsung in late 1980s. When Samsung decided to go global the main problem which aroused was companys image of being bargain junk. CEO and management personnel of the company travelled to the US to understand the market and realized that there is a strong need to change this perception about Samsung. Like Sony, Samsung also started with setting up of sales subsidiaries mainly in developed countries but unlike Sony, Samsung did not emphasized in tapping one country at a time. Rather Samsung started with its global operations in 1980s with setting up of production facilities in Southeast Asia and Eastern Europe with an aim of gaining the benefits from roundabout export. Samsung also took the path of mergers and acquisitions to go global during the initial years of globalizati on. This was not the case with Sony which entered new markets independently to acquire new markets with its existing competencies and image. Despite of a strong resistance for its products design in European markets, Sony refused to compromise on companys corporate philosophy. However in 1990s Samsung did follow th strategies that included manufacturing components for better known global brands and selling copycat products of microwaves or televisions such as Sanyo to consumers. On the part of Global Coordination, Sony followed a policy of decentralization along with a tight control from headquarters so as to ensure proper functioning, accountability, transparency, cooperation and increased corporate worth. At Samsung, global operations are managed region wise. U.S market is considered as a centre for local marketing and introduction of new technologies whereas Mexico is the base for roundabout export. While Southeast Asia and Europe are the production sites, Japan is the new export market centre for introducing new technologies and China is the second most fundamental market. All these markets are given adequate authority to perform their individual functions but are closely linked with each other as well as with Global Strategy Control Headquarters in Korea. There is an exchange of technology between US and Mexico where low to medium class products are manufactured. Also there is a supply of products from Europe to U.S and of product design and new develo pments from U.S to Europe. At the same time there is a constant flow of information regarding RD initiatives, and high value-added products from the headquarters to these global business units. Thus, there is a coordination of operations among all the markets which are working as per their specializations. Sony has set up several RD units in various different countries to absorb the customers expectations from all the markets and convert this information into new innovative products to suit the needs of each specific market and its customers. Samsung also invested heavily on RD and applied the concept of innovation within the organization. According to Steers, Richard (1997) Innovation for Samsung means, develop through globalization to globalize Samsung. However, Samsung adopted a strategy to make each and every staff member of the organization capable enough to innovate. Ungson, Gerardo (1997) explained that a review of Samsungs operations from 1990 to 1992 demonstrated the need to train employees as international experts, to manage difficulties, experienced with foreign local employees, and to recruit excellent employees. Company created an atmosphere that can make each employee confident to create innovation. For this Samsung revised the concept of Samsung man that emphasized on the creative individual who is characterized with a wide view and high moral standards. Samsung recruited qualified people and there were a third of companys directors aged in 40 years or younger. The company aimed at getting people with good vision about future and considered human capital as the most important element for a successful innovation leading to efficient globalization. On account of corporate Governance, Sony has a clear structure consisting of board of directors which are mainly from external sources of the company. In Samsung there is a cross shareholdings pattern representing a web of dubious cross-shareholdings among scholars, bureaucrats and NGOs. Chairman of the company, Lee Kun-hee and his family maintain a control over the group. The Samsung Everland, Samsung Life insurance, Samsung Electronics and Samsung Card are the main pillars to sustain corporate governance structure and form a ring of shareholdings in the company and exhibit an intricately entangled shareholding system. 4 CURRENT ECONOMIC CRISIS AND GLOBAL STRATEGIES In the words of Landefeld, J.Steven (2009) Globalization is an economic process that has been going on since the earliest days of trade and investment across regions and countries. It has helped in significantly raising the standards of living, health and improvement in environment through a rise in world-wide production and income. As it is always believed that globalization is largely driven by economic gain; a common question during the situations of economic crisis is whether a company should focus on its current geographies rather than venture into expanding its global operations. In current financial crisis it has been seen that markets are good at pricing marginal risks so as to achieve short-term gains. However, Landefeld (2009) argued that markets are not good in evaluating bubbles and long-term systematic risk. The current financial crisis definitely affects the global strategies of companies. Most of the companies view the global economic downturn as the biggest challenge partnerships to be dealt with. Also, most of the agencies report that their corporate partners are finding it difficult to initiate new partnerships in current economic crisis. Despite such difficulties the current economic crisis has a positive side-effect also. It provides an opportunity of an extra incentive for finding more and more creative ways of partnerships and global engagements. The crisis also has a positive effect of encouraging innovation. According to Rhodes, D., and Stelter, D., 2009, Seize the Advantage in a Downturn, Harvard Business Review, Inaction is the riskiest response to the uncertainties of an economic crisis. But rash or scattershot action can be nearly damaging. In the above mentioned article Rhodes pointed out that a planned approach towards global strategies need to be followed in times of economic crisis. The very first step in this approach is that the company should assess its own vulnerabilities, at the company level and by business unit. Company should be aware of various ways in which the current scenario can affect its business in terms of reduced demand for its products, companys ability to secure short-term financing, effect on cost of capital, etc. Once such affects are known the impact can be quantified to closely assess the exposure. Then it is possible to determine the ways to reduce the exposure and survive and maximize the companys performance during the downturn. Dr, Suder, Gabriele, Professor of International Business at CERAM Business School, France clarifies that while the reduction-of-cost argument is one of the main motivations for internationalization in times of crisis, when it comes to location decisions, decision-makers will always also opt for convenient labor conditions, market opener effects and access to resources not obtainable elsewhere. Therefore, a crisis as we know it today is unlikely to alter internationalization strategies, and it shouldnt. Simply because this would alter the firms strength. Rhodes explained that a company can capitalize on the opportunities presented by a recession. There is a need to assess and minimize the vulnerability of ones firm. This will position a company to seize future resources of competitive advantage, whether through bold investments in product development or transformative acquisitions. As per the plan suggested by Rhodes, liquidity is considered as the key to survive any economic crisis. A company should monitor and maximize its cash position. This can be done through tightly managing customer credit and aggressively managing working capital. Also, there is a need to optimize ones financial structure by reducing debt and other liabilities and securing access to lines of credit. Further, there is a need to inform investors and analysts about the companys recession preparedness. This will help in maintaining a strong share price for the company. A company should reduce costs and increase efficiency during economic crisis. This is to be done through rooting out long-standing activities, centralize key functions, and analyze current suppliers and reviving earlier efficiency initiatives to implement them fully in better times. Next level is to revitalize customer retention initiatives during recession. There is a need to realign sales force utilization and incentives, reallocate marketing spending towards immediate revenue generation, and consider more-generous financial terms for customers. Also, during recession a company should reconsider its product mix and pricing strategies so as to offer lower-price versions of existing products, considering creative strategies such as result-based or subscription pricing, etc. Naim, Moises (2009) Globalization cannot be derailed by the world financial crisis until and unless we believe that globalization is mainly about international trade and investment. James (2009) argued that present economic crisis is temporary and globalization will continue and the entire world is tied up due to increase in volume of business. Through a proper mechanism a company can very well expand during recession also. The best companies make an extra effort to not only survive in downturn but position themselves to thrive during subsequent upturn. A company should consider the fact that investments made today in areas such as product development and technology will give good results only once the recession is past. The cost of such initiatives will be lower during recession and will give huge benefits in times of growth. Also, an economic crisis like that of today is good time to invest in human capital also. Downturns can also be viewed as an opportunity to rethink the business models. More and more analysts and practitioners are emphasizing on recognizing the importance of sustainable business practices, comprehensive risk-management, long-term performance and ethics. The current economic crisis has lead to recognition of Corporate Social Responsibility in every organization. This crisis has lead companies to pay more attention on environmental, social and governance issues which have a positive effect on companys performance and long-term corporate value. Also, financial investors have learned to consider these key issues while making any investment decisions. Steets, Julia (2009) argued that the global economic crisis will most likely not have a negative impact on business partnerships. In the words of Thomsen, Kristina (2009) While the crisis leads to a reduction of philanthropic giving, it also triggers innovative partnerships and may have a cathartic effect on more conventional ones, eliminating those that would not have been sustainable anyway. Thus, compan ies adopting a comprehensive approach towards handling economic crisis can be better placed and be able to seize the opportunities emerging from the turbulence and will also be able to head start on the competition once the crisis is over. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS From the above discussion it can be concluded that current financial downturn supports the recognition of sustainable business practices for long-term success of an organization and its businesses. At a time when global competition is intensifying, Sony and Samsung, using different set of strategies, remain internationally competitive. Sony has continued to supply innovative products all over the world. On the other hand Samsung has emphasized on process enrichment and innovation along with good RD investment. Samsung has concentrated on its core competency of manufacturing. Despite their different approached towards globalization and various other key issues related with the concept, both Sony and Samsung have successfully met the challenges of global competition. Sony has been characterized with an unrelated diversification. Samsung is focused on its core competency of manufacturing but Sony seems to have stuck up in multiple businesses and such unrelated businesses can be more detrimental rather than being helpful for the company. It is recommended for Sony to regain focus and investing in enhancing the companys core competencies. Further to survive competition from firms like Samsung and LG, the top management teams at Sony should evaluate the identity of the Sony brand to its customers and adopt a brand oriented leadership. These steps are necessary to rejuvenate Sony in the long run. REFERENCES Caves R.E. (1986), Multinational enterprise and economic analysis, Cambridge University Press, pp.1-30 Dunning J.H. (1993), Multinational Enterprises and the Global Economy, Addision-Wesley Publishing Lindsay M. (1992), Developing Capital Markets in Eastern Europe-A Business Reference, New York University Press Landefeld, J.Steven (2009), Un High- Level Forum on Globalization and Global Crisis: The Role of Official Statistics. United Nations Statistics Division, ECOSOC Chamber. Kim, Samuel S. (2000), Korean Globalization, Cambridge University Press. Parker, Barbara (2005), Introduction to Globalization Business, Sage Publishing. Pak Y.S. and Park Y.R. (2004), Global Ownership Strategy of Japanese Multinational Enterprises: A Test of Internalization Theory, Management International Review, Vol.44, No.1, pp.3-21 Steers, Richard M Park, Seung-Ho (1997), Korean Enterprise, Harvard Business School Press. Websites Samsung Corporation http://www.samsung.com Samsung in Hungary http://www.samsung.com/hu/index.htm Samsung in Russia http://www.samsung.ru/about/ Samsung RD expenses in 2003 http://www.samsung.com/AboutSAMSUNG/ELECTRONICSGLOBAL/CompanyProfile/InvestmentinRD/ Samsung’s Governance Remains Problematic (2009), Ohmy News http://english.ohmynews.com/articleview/article_view.asp?menu=c10400no=274927rel_no=1 Accessed 18 November 2009 Sony Corporation http://www.sony.net Will globalization be derailed by the world financial crisis? (2009), McKinsey Company http://whatmatters.mckinseydigital.com/the_debate_zone/will-globalization-be-derailed-by-the-world-financial-crisis Accessed 18 November 2009